Reverse logistics symbiosis of e-waste recycling system: an investigation on stakeholder’s engagement and household behaviour

The global shift toward digitalization has led to the widespread electronification, accelerated by expanding internet connectivity across both urban and remote regions. As electronic devices become increasingly integral, the volume of electronic waste (e-waste) continues to rise at an alarming rate. In 2022, global e-waste generation reached 62 megatonnes (Mt), with less than 25% properly managed through sustainable channels. The improper disposal of e-waste, which often ends up in landfills, poses serious threats to environmental health and highlights systemic weaknesses in existing waste management systems. This study addresses the urgent need for a more integrated and collaborative approach to e-waste management by introducing the concept of reverse logistics symbiosis. The core problem lies in the fragmented engagement between key actors, especially households and waste management authorities, which limits the effectiveness of reverse logistics systems. This study aims to examine stakeholder interdependence in household e-waste recycling practices and assess the role of symbiotic relationships in driving participation. This study employs an explanatory sequential mixed-methods design, using surveys and interviews to investigate household behaviours across urban, suburban, and rural subclusters in Malaysia. This research introduces and empirically validates the Symbiosis Effect Framework, capturing the mutual dependencies among actors in the reverse flow of e-waste. Findings indicate that fostering symbiosis through the integration of Household E-waste Recycling Systems (HERS) and Household E-waste Recycling Behaviour (HERB) significantly boosts household recycling participation. Situational factors such as convenience, engagement, advertising, education, and policies, and personal factors including attitude, knowledge, experience, awareness, and psychological ownership were found to directly influence household participation. Additionally, the relationship between HERS and HERB was moderated by demographic variables such as residential subclusters, age, and gender, underscoring the importance of context-sensitive strategies. The findings provide actionable insights for policymakers, manufacturers, and waste agencies to co-develop sustainable and socially inclusive e-waste solutions.